Anglo-Saxon language

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[[de:Angels�chsische Sprache]]

Anglo-Saxon (also called Old English) was an early form of the English language that existed in England some 1500 years ago. It was a West Germanic language and was very similar to Old Norse. Unlike modern English, Anglo-Saxon was a language rich with morphological diversity. It maintained several distinct cases, such as the dative, genitive and instrumental, which are only marginally marked today.

Anglo-Saxon was not a static form and gradually became Old English. Its usage covered a period of some 700 or so years from approximately 450 AD to some time after the Norman invasion in 1066 when the language underwent a major and dramatic transitory upheaval, during a period which is (generally) now referred to as Middle English. During the 700 years in which it was in use it assimilated some aspects of the indigenous pre-Celtic languages, some of the Celtic languages which it came into contact with, some of the two variants of the invading Scandinavian languages occupying and controlling the Danelaw, and Norman French in the wake of 1066.

Further, the influence of Latin on Anglo-Saxon should not be ignored. A large percentage of the educated and literate population, monks, clerics, etc, were competent in what was then the prevalent lingua franca. This influence predates the insular incursions of the Anglo-Saxons in their original continental language.

The language was further altered by the transition away from the runic futhark alphabet to the Latin alphabet was also a significant factor in the developmental pressures brought to bear on the language. Words were spelled as they were pronounced. Silent letters therefore did not often exist in Anglo-Saxon: for example, the Anglo-Saxon word for a "knight", cniht, had four distinct consonants.

The Scandinavian loanwords which were to impact on the emergent Anglo-Saxon language tend to be everyday words and those which are concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw.

The number of Celtic loanwords is of a much lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian; as few as twelve loanwords have been identified as being entirely secure.

Dialects

To further complicate matters, Anglo-Saxon was rich in dialect forms. This diversity was particularly marked until after the process of unification of the diverse Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in 878 by Alfred the Great.

The four principal dialect forms of Anglo-Saxon were: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish and West Saxon.

Pronunciation

Vowels

æ (called ash) is a as in "bat"

Consonants

Consonants equivalent to Modern English

b, d, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, x

h

If the letter h appears at the beginning of a word it is pronounced as it would be in Modern English.

It it appears after a vowel, the letter h is a velar or palatal fricative(a normal h sound is a glottal fricative), the actual sound being contingent upon the preceding vowel.

s

s is pronounced as the Modern English equivalent if it is at the beginning of a word, the end of a word, or if it is adjacent to an unvoiced consonant.

If it comes between vowels or a vowel and a consonant that is voiced then it is pronounced like the letter z in Modern English.

Consonant pairs

þ and ð

Although in effect a single character, both of these represent a consonant pair, that of "th". Both these characters are interchangeable and resolve to the sound "th" as in mother and father between vowels, thin and path initially and finally.

sc

sc is pronounced as the "sh" sound, as in "ship". (The Anglo-Saxon word for a ship is scip...)

c

c can be rendered either a soft consonant pair as in "child" (Anglo-Saxon cild) or a hard single as in "king" (Anglo-Saxon cyning). The sound is largely determined by the word itself and the vowels adjoining it in that word.

Anglo-Saxon Grammar

Characters

In addition to most of the characters in the current alphabet, Anglo-Saxon supported three other characters:

æ - ash (æsc) pronounced as the 'a' in Modern English "cat"

þ - thorn which represents the Modern English pair "th"

ð - eth which also represents the Modern English pair "th"

Additionally the letter w has a different manifestation in Old English as the character wynn.

Old English did not use v and j since these were later additions to the alphabet; q and z are sparingly found.

Syntax

As a West Germanic language, Anglo-Saxon syntax has a great deal of common ground with Dutch and German. Old English is not dependent upon S (subject), V (verb), O (object) or "SVO" word order in the way that Modern English is. The syntax of an Anglo-Saxon sentence can be in any of these shapes: SVO order, VSO order, and OVS order. The only constant rule, as in German, is that the verb must come as the second concept. That is, in the sentence 'in the town, we ate some food', it would appear as 'in the town, ate we some food', or 'in the tre town, ate some food we'.

To further complicate the matter, prepositions may appear after their object, though they are not postpositions, as they may occur in front of the noun too, and usually do(eg.

God cwæð him þus to
(lit) God said him thus to
i.e. God said thus to him

)

Verbs

Verbs in Anglo-Saxon are divided into strong or weak verbs. Strong verbs, which are in the majority, use the Germanic form of conjugation (known as Ablaut). Weak verbs are formed principally by adding endings to past and participles.

Strong verbs are further subdivided into seven separate classes and weak verbs into three.

Additionally there is a further group of four verbs which are anomalous, the verbs "will", "do", "go" and "be".

Nouns

Anglo-Saxon nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Strong nouns have branched declensions, with particular and specialised endings for different numbers and cases. The weak declension nouns were those nouns which had begun to lose their declensional system. It should be pointed out that the majority of noun stems in Anglo-Saxon were in the strong grouping.

Adjectives

Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon may be declined strong or weak. The strong or weak form is determined by the strength or weakness of the noun which it is qualifiying.

Pronouns

Pronouns preserved the dual number in declension, and this inclines to make them more archaic than the remainder of Anglo-Saxon speech patterns. Most of pronouns are declined by number, case and gender; in the plural form most pronouns have only one form for all genders.

Personal pronouns

1st Person
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	ic, �c	w�	wit
Genitive	m�n	�re	uncer
Dative	m�	�s	unc
Accusative	mec, m�	�sic, �s	uncit, unc

2nd Person
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	þ�	g�	git
Genitive	þin	�ower	incer
Dative	þe	�ow	inc
Accusative	þ�c, þ�	�owic, �ow	incit, inc

3rd Person
Case	Singular	Plural	Dual
Nominative	h� m., h�o f., hit n.	hi� m., h�o f.
Genitive	his m., hire f., his n.	hiera m., heora f.
Dative	him m., hire f., him n.	him
Accusative	hine m., h�e f., hit n.	hi� m., h�o f.

Many of the forms above bear strong resemblances to their contemporary English language equivalents: for instance in the genitive case �ower became "your", �re became "our", m�n became "mine".

Prepositions

Prepositions often follow the word which they govern, in which case they are called postpositions.

Front Mutation

Front Mutation (also known as "I/J Mutation") has the effect that if a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable which contained a letter "i" or "j", then the previous stressed vowel is fronted or raised. The "i" or "j" is dropped from the word or changes to "e".

A particular class of nouns contain an "i" in the dative singular and plural nominative accusative forms. Consequent upon front mutation, irregular singular/plural oppositions therefore occur such as fot and fet, and mus and mys.

Old English examples

A sample of Anglo-Saxon can be found in the Beowulf article.

References

Adapted from the Wikipedia article, "Old English language" http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_language August 28, 2003