Horse
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The Horse, Equus caballus, is a large ungulate mammal, one of the seven modern species of the genus Equus.
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Evolution of the Horse
The evolution of the horse from the very early (ca 55 million years ago) Hyracotherium to the wild equids listed below, is well understood. It is the transition from the wild species existing in the fossil or tundra record, to the myriad domesticated breeds today, that is not well understood. One interesting thing is that horse skeletons dug up from Roman times still show a toe which today is only rudimentary and looks like a callous spot on the leg of the horse, showing major changes in the species can occur very fast.
Domestication of the Horse and Surviving Wild Species
The earliest evidence for the domestication of the horse has been found in Central Asia, about 3,000 BCE. There are competing theories about the time and place of domestication. However, wild species continued into historic times, including the Forest Horse, Equus caballus silvaticus (also called the Diluvial Horse); it is thought to have evolved into Equus caballus germanicus, and may have contributed to the development of the heavy horses of northern Europe, such as the Ardennais. The Tarpan, Equus caballus gmelini, became extinct in 1880, but has been "bred back", by crossing living domesticated horses that had primitive features, thanks to the efforts of the brothers Lutz Heck (director of the Berlin zoo) and Heinz Heck (director Tierpark Munich Hellabrunn). The resulting animal is more properly called the Wild Polish Horse.
The only true surviving wild-horse species is Prezwalski's Horse, Equus caballus prezwalskii prewalskii Polaikov [[]], a rare Asian species. In Mongolia it is known as the taki, while the Kirghiz people call it a kirtag. There are wild populations in Mongolia and you can find more here: http://www.treemail.nl/takh/.
Wild vs. Feral Horses
An distinction should be made between wild animals, whose ancestors have never been domesticated, and feral animals, whose ancestors have been domesticated, but who now live in the wild. There are several populations of feral horses, including those in the West of the United States (often called mustangs) and in parts of Australia (called brumbies). These feral horses may provide useful insights into the behavior of their ancestral wild horses.
The Icelandic horse (which is pony-sized but is referred to as a horse) are an interesting species too from a historic and behavioural point of view. Introduced by the Vikings on Iceland, they have not been subject to the selective breeding that has taken place in Europe from about the middle ages until now, giving us a picture of what horses looked like and behaved like in those days. The Icelandic horse has a unique gait called Tulting, inbetween trot and gallop.
Other Equids
Other members of the horse family include zebras, donkeys, and hemoinids. The Donkey or Domestic Ass, Equus asinus, like the horse, has many breeds. A mule is a hybrid of an ass and a horse and is infertile.
Specialized vocabulary
In the English-speaking world, horses are measured in hands. One hand is 4 inches, or about 0.11 meter. Adult horses can range in size from 5 hands (a very small miniature horse or falabella) to over 18 hands. The convention is: 15.2 hh means 15 hands, 2 inches in height, measured at the highest point of the withers.
Horses are usually distinguished by ponies purely according to size: a horse stands 14.2 hh (58 inches, 1.47 meters) or higher, a pony is an adult equine less than 14.2 hh. Thus, normal variations can mean that a horse stallion and horse mare can become the parents of an adult pony. The appellation of certain breeds, such as the miniature horse or the Icelandic pony, do not follow the horse/pony size rule.
A vocabulary of specialised words relating to horses
- horse - adult equine of either sex over 14.2 hh (58 inches, 1.47 meters)
- pony - equine 14.2 hh or less (58 inches, 1.47 meters)
- mare - adult female horse
- stallion - adult, uncastrated male horse
- gelding - adult, castrated male horse
- foal - infant horse of either sex
- filly - female horse from birth to sexual maturity (about 24 months)
- colt - male horse from birth to sexual maturity (about 24 months)
- withers - the highest point of the shoulder seen best with horse standing square and head slightly lowered
The Origin of Modern Horse Breeds
Horses come in an astonishing array of sizes and shapes. The draft breeds can top 20 hands (80 inches, 2.03 meters) while the smallest miniature horses can be as little as 5.2 hands (22 inches, 0.56 meters). These are breed differences, not race differences; the individuals would still be fertile if bred.
There are several schools of thought on how this amazing range of size and shape came about. These schools grew up reasoning from the type of dentition and the horses' outward appearance. One school, which we can call the "Four Foundations" is that the modern horse evolved from two types of early domesticated pony and two types of early domesticated horse; the differences between these types accounts for the differences in type of the modern breeds. A second school is the "Single Foundation"--that there was only one breed of horse domesticated, and it diverged in form after domestication by human selective breeding (or in the case of feral horses, ecological pressures). Finally, there are those geneticists who are evaluating the DNA and mitochondrial DNA to construct family trees.
Breeds, Studbooks, Purebreds and Landraces
The idea of a "purebred" animal developed during the 19th century. See selective breeding.
Hotbloods, Warmbloods, and Coldbloods
The Arabian horses, whether originating on the Saudi peninsula or from the European studs (breeding establishments) of the 18th and 19th century, are termed "hotbloods", for their fiery temperaments. (Some include the thoroughbred in the "hotblood" category.) The slow, heavy draft horses are termed "coldbloods" as they are usually quite calm in temparement. The warmbloods are everything else, but the term also specifically refers to the European breeds such as the Hanoverian that have dominated dressage and show jumping since the 1950s.
The list of horse breeds provides a partial alphabetical list of breeds of horse extant today, plus a discussion of rare breeds conservation.
Horses today
The invention of the internal combustion engine and the tractor reduced the utility of the horse in agriculture, although there are still working teams, in particular in specialty forestry.
Horses in Sport today
Racing in all its forms
It is a safe bet that the domestication of the horse preceeded betting on which horse was fastest by a matter of hours. Certainly the desire to see which horse is fastest seems to be an innate human feature! Horse-racing today can be divided into racing short distances under saddle on a track: flat racing or the thoroughbred horse race. Thoroughbreds are the most famous of the racing breeds, but Arabians, quarter horses, and Appaloosas are also raced on the flat in the United States. Steeplechasing is racing on a track, where the horses also jump over obstacles. It is most popular in Great Britain. Endurance riding is very popular in the United States and Europe, race lengths varying from 20 to 100 miles.
The Traditional European Competitions
Originally, there were three Olympic equestrian events: dressage is the training of the horse to a very high level of flexibility and obedience. It became an Olympic sport in 1912. Show jumping is judged on the ability of the horse and rider to jump over a series of obstacles, in a given order. Eventing or "the complete test" as its French name translates, puts together the obedience of dressage with the athletic ability of show jumping, with the fitness demands of a long endurance phase and the "cross-country" jumping phase.
There is also a form of cross-country which is called 'the military'. This particular form of cross-country riding is controversial. All the obstacles in the course are solid obstacles. The horses also have to jump from great heights and have to manouver some dangerous terrain. It is very common that in a military horses have to be put down because of injuries they suffer.
Polo is another European tradition that has become international, differing from racing and the other competitions in that it is a team sport.
Western riding
Dressage, jumping and cross-country are forms of what is referred to as 'English riding'. Western riding is based on the style of the cowboy in the American west. Different tack is used, most notably split reins and different saddles (the Western saddle has a pommel, or big knob, at the front for the lasso). Competitions exists in the following forms:
- Western pleasure - the rider must show the horse in walk, jog (a slow, controlled trot), trot and lope (gallop). The horse must be under control with minimal contact of the reigns and minimal interference of the rider. They most also show a sliding-stop. In this the horse comes to a full stop from a fast gallop while sliding on its hind legs. This looks very spectacular and good control of the horse is needed to be able to do this properly.
- Reigning and cutting: this involves working with cattle. In reigning 3 to 5 cows have to be driven into a fenced area by a group of 3 riders. In cutting, the cutter has to separate a cow from a herd and keep it separated from the herd for a set time. Helpers are in the ring to keep the herd on one side of the ring, but only the cutter is awarded points by the jury. For this work it is important that the horse reacts to the movement of the cow on its own, which is called cow-sense. This is a trait which the American Quarterback and Appaloosa horse is particularly good at, mostly through selective breeding. European horses are not seen in this type of event.
- Trail-riding: in this event, the rider has to manouver the horse through an obstacle course in a ring. Speed is not important, but total control of the horse is. The horses have to move sideways, make 90 degree turns while moving backwards, a fence has to be opened and/or closed while on the horse and more such manouvres.
- Cow-wrestling: this is not allowed in Europe because of animal welfare concerns, but is done in the USA, usually at rodeo events. While riding, the rider jumps off his horse onto a cow and 'wrestles' the cow to the ground.
- Roping: this is also not allowed in Europe. In roping, the rider has to catch a cow with a lasso and bring it under control.
Rodeo riding (riding a bucking "wild" horse for as long as possible) is a separate event and not considered Western riding as such.
Noncompetitive Horse Sports
See also: classic equitation books list of horse breeds, horse gaits, horse tack, horse teeth, Trojan Horse.
Miscellaneous
The horse is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the Chinese zodiac related to the Chinese calendar.
External link
A horse is a piece of equipment used in gymnastics. It consists of a horizontal padded mass, representing the body of a horse, with two handles on top.
Horse is also the name of a game played with a basketball.
Horse is also a slang term for the recreational drug heroin.
Horses is the name of an album by Patti Smith.
References
- Adapted from the Wikipedia article, "Horse" http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse August 17, 2003
